While moderate caffeine use is “generally recognized as safe” by the US Food and Drug Administration and the American Medical Association, this classification is largely based on studies conducted in adults. The top three sources of caffeine in adults are coffee (70%), soda (16%), and tea (12%) ( Frary et al., 2005). Approximately 90% of adults report regular caffeine use, with an average daily intake of ~227 mg ( Frary et al., 2005). The levels of caffeine can vary widely in these products depending on the strength of the preparation, as in the case of tea and coffee, or the amount that is added exogenously, as in the case with soda and energy drinks. Caffeine is also used as an additive in other products, such as soda, energy drinks, and some pain relievers ( Frary et al., 2005). Caffeine is found in coffee, black tea, and chocolate, as it is produced naturally in the beans and leaves of the plants used to manufacture these products ( Friedman, 2007 Kovacs and Mela, 2006). Finally, the review will focus on why caffeine consumption during childhood and adolescence may have particularly harmful consequences.Ĭaffeine is produced by a variety of beans, leaves, and fruit where its bitterness acts as a deterrent to pests. After this, the specific topics of tolerance, sensitization and cross-sensitization, conditioning, and reinforcement will be discussed. First, caffeine sources and consumption rates will be reviewed followed by a brief discussion of the mechanisms of caffeine action. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the literature on caffeine use and to discuss why children may be particularly vulnerable to potentially negative effects of caffeine, with an emphasis on how caffeine use relates to both ingestive behavior and use of illicit drugs. This, coupled with growing concerns from parents and physicians, strengthens the imperative to empirically determine the effects of caffeine use in children. Energy drinks are marketed specifically to young adults and children with advertisements featuring high risk activities and extreme sports, such as rock climbing, parasailing, and BASE jumping and with catchy slogans such as “Red Bull gives you wings” and “Excite your sense” (reviewed in Miller, 2008a). Energy drinks sales have grown by more than 50% since 2005 and represent the fastest growing segment of the beverage industry ( Chandrasekaran, 2006). These drinks contain caffeine levels ranging from 50 mg (equivalent to a can of soda) to 500 mg (equivalent to 5 cups of coffee) and, often, very high levels of sugar ( Energyfiend website, 2008). Coincident with this rise in caffeine use is the development of novel, caffeine containing beverages called energy drinks. Given that some caffeine containing beverages are marketed directly to children ( Bramstedt, 2007) and that caffeine use is on the rise among children ( Frary et al., 2005), it is important to understand the potential effects of caffeine use within this population.Ĭhildren and adolescents are the fastest growing population of caffeine users with an increase of 70% in the past 30 years ( Harnack et al., 1999). The safety of caffeine use among children is understudied and poorly understood. Although generally recognized as safe by the Food and Drug Administration, caffeine use in excess can result in serious health hazards and, in rare cases, death ( Broderick and Benjamin, 2004 Kerrigan and Lindsey, 2005). It is classified as a stimulant drug that is typically used for its ability to arouse the central nervous system. The following topics are reviewed: 1) tolerance and addiction to caffeine 2) sensitization and cross-sensitization to the effects of caffeine 3) caffeine self-administration and reinforcing value and 4) conditioning of preferences for caffeine-containing beverages in both adults and children.Ĭaffeine is the most commonly used psychoactive substance throughout the world ( Nehlig, 1999). The purpose of this article is to review what is known about caffeine use in children and adolescents, to discuss why children and adolescents may be particularly vulnerable to the negative effects of caffeine, and to propose how caffeine consumption within this population may potentiate the rewarding properties of other substances. Unfortunately, our knowledge of the effects of caffeine use on behavior and physiology of children remains understudied and poorly understood. In addition, some caffeine-containing beverages are specifically marketed to children as young as four years of age. Although once relatively restricted to use among adults, caffeine-containing drinks are now consumed regularly by children. Caffeine is a widely used psychoactive substance in both adults and children that is legal, easy to obtain, and socially acceptable to consume.
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